Russian spelling looks honest. Most Cyrillic letters stand for one sound, and after an afternoon with the alphabet you can sound out almost any word. Then you hear someone say корова (cow). It is written with three o's, and only one of them sounds like o: /kɐrovə/.
Two things cause most of the gap between the letters and the sounds. Stress is not written, yet it decides what every vowel in the word turns into. And most consonants come in a hard and a soft version, a difference the letters show only indirectly, through the vowel that follows. IPA writes out the softness and what each vowel really becomes.
This chart lists the 42 sounds of standard Russian with one example word each, its IPA and the nearest English sound. The rows marked "none" are the ones you have to build from scratch.
Want your own Russian text in IPA? Paste it into the Russian to IPA converter.
How the 42 sounds are counted
The inventory follows Wikipedia's Help:IPA/Russian, the key Wikipedia uses to transcribe Russian words. It sets each hard consonant beside its soft partner and lists each stressed vowel twice, once between hard sounds and once next to soft ones. We turned that into four tables:
- 6 stressed vowels: /a e i o u/ plus /ɨ/. Linguists disagree about /ɨ/. The Moscow school treats it as the form /i/ takes after a hard consonant; the St Petersburg school counts it as a phoneme of its own (Russian phonology, section "Vowels"). It gets a row here because you have to learn to say it either way.
- 15 hard consonants that have a soft partner.
- 15 soft consonants, one for each hard one. The soft velars /kʲ ɡʲ xʲ/ appear almost only before /i/ and /e/, so some descriptions do not count them as separate phonemes. They keep their rows because you still have to produce them.
- 6 consonants without a partner: /j ɕː t͡ɕ/, which are always soft, and /ʂ ʐ t͡s/, which are always hard.
That makes 6 + 15 + 15 + 6 = 42 rows. Left out: the reduced vowels [ɐ ə ɪ ʊ] and the shifted vowels [æ ɛ ɵ ʉ], which are variants of the six and get their own sections below; the voiced [dz], [dʑ] and [ɣ], which appear only when a neighbouring sound changes their voicing or in a few interjections; and /ʑː/, which Wikipedia describes as largely obsolete outside a conservative Moscow accent and a handful of words such as дрожжи (yeast).
The IPA comes from a pronunciation lexicon IPAtics maintains, and every example was checked against its Wiktionary entry. That lexicon writes the hard l as /ɫ/ and joins affricates with a tie bar (t͡s, t͡ɕ), where Help:IPA/Russian writes /l/, ts and tɕ. The sounds are the same. The IPA shows sounds, not stress: the transliteration column marks the stressed vowel with an accent (máma), and an apostrophe stands for the soft sign ь. If the symbols themselves are new to you, start with how to read IPA.
Stressed vowels (6)
| Symbol | Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Nearest English sound |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| /a/ | там | tam | /tam/ | a in father, shorter |
| /e/ | нет | net | /nʲet/ | e in met |
| /i/ | мир | mir | /mʲir/ | ee in meet |
| /ɨ/ | мы | my | /mɨ/ | none |
| /o/ | дом | dom | /dom/ | o in more, without the r |
| /u/ | суп | sup | /sup/ | oo in cool |
The five-or-six question comes down to /ɨ/. Russian writes it with its own letter, ы, and you hear it only after hard consonants. After soft consonants and at the start of a word you hear /i/ instead. Take быть /bɨtʲ/ (to be) and бить /bʲitʲ/ (to beat): the two words differ in the consonant as well as the vowel, and the vowel follows the consonant. That is why the Moscow school sees one phoneme with two variants. The difference between a phoneme and its variants is explained in phonemic vs phonetic transcription.
Stressed vowels also shift with their neighbours. According to Help:IPA/Russian, /a/ moves toward [æ] and /u/ toward [ʉ] between soft consonants, /o/ moves toward [ɵ] after a soft one, and /e/ is the more open [ɛ] after a hard consonant. You can see all four in the dictionary's transcriptions: чай /t͡ɕæj/ (tea), чуть /t͡ɕʉtʲ/ (barely), тётя /tʲɵtʲə/ (aunt) and жест /ʐɛst/ (gesture). These variants follow from the consonants around them, so they do not get rows of their own.
Hard consonants (15)
| Symbol | Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Nearest English sound |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| /p/ | пол | pol | /poɫ/ | p in span |
| /b/ | бок | bok | /bok/ | b in boot |
| /t/ | так | tak | /tak/ | t in stand |
| /d/ | да | da | /da/ | d in do |
| /k/ | кот | kot | /kot/ | c in scar |
| /ɡ/ | гол | gol | /ɡoɫ/ | g in good |
| /f/ | факт | fakt | /fakt/ | f in fool |
| /v/ | вот | vot | /vot/ | v in voodoo |
| /s/ | сок | sok | /sok/ | s in soup |
| /z/ | зал | zal | /zaɫ/ | z in zoo |
| /x/ | хор | khor | /xor/ | none (ch in Scottish loch) |
| /m/ | мама | máma | /mamə/ | m in moot |
| /n/ | нос | nos | /nos/ | n in noon |
| /ɫ/ | лук | luk | /ɫuk/ | ll in pill |
| /r/ | рот | rot | /rot/ | none (a trilled r) |
Three details make these sound Russian rather than English. Help:IPA/Russian matches /p t k/ with the p, t and c of span, stand and scar, not pan, tan and car. After s, English p, t and k lose their puff of air, and that plain version is the closer match. /t d n/ are dental: the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth, not the ridge behind them (Russian phonology, section "Consonants"). And "hard" means more than "not soft". Help:IPA/Russian describes hard consonants as velarised or uvularised, with the back of the tongue pulled up and back. You hear it most clearly in /ɫ/, the dark l that English has at the end of pill.
Soft consonants (15)
A soft consonant is said with the middle of the tongue raised toward the hard palate, in the position of the y in yes, at the same moment as the consonant itself. It is one sound, not a consonant followed by a y.
| Symbol | Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Nearest English sound |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| /pʲ/ | пить | pit' | /pʲitʲ/ | p in spew |
| /bʲ/ | бить | bit' | /bʲitʲ/ | b in beautiful |
| /tʲ/ | тень | ten' | /tʲenʲ/ | t in British stew |
| /dʲ/ | день | den' | /dʲenʲ/ | d in media |
| /kʲ/ | кит | kit | /kʲit/ | k in skew |
| /ɡʲ/ | гид | gid | /ɡʲit/ | g in argue |
| /xʲ/ | химия | khímiya | /xʲimʲɪjə/ | h in huge, for some speakers |
| /fʲ/ | фильм | fil'm | /fʲilʲm/ | f in few |
| /vʲ/ | вес | ves | /vʲes/ | v in view |
| /sʲ/ | сила | síla | /sʲiɫə/ | ss in British assume |
| /zʲ/ | зима | zimá | /zʲɪma/ | s in British presume |
| /mʲ/ | мясо | myáso | /mʲasə/ | m in mute |
| /nʲ/ | нёс | nyos | /nʲɵs/ | n in vineyard |
| /lʲ/ | люк | lyuk | /lʲuk/ | l in failure |
| /rʲ/ | ряд | ryad | /rʲat/ | none (a single tap, tongue raised) |
Most of the English words in the last column put a y-glide after the consonant: few is f, then y, then the vowel. That is as close as English gets, and it makes a good first step. In Russian the y-quality belongs to the consonant itself, so aim to shorten the glide until it merges into the consonant. Many speakers also add a slight hiss to /tʲ/ and /dʲ/, so день can sound close to "dzyen'"; Wikipedia notes that /tʲ dʲ/ are now affricated in most contexts.
Consonants without a partner (6)
Help:IPA/Russian notes that in native words /ʂ ʐ t͡s/ are always hard and /j ɕː t͡ɕ/ are always soft. The spelling does not change that. After ж, ш and ц the letter и is said /ɨ/, as in жить /ʐɨtʲ/ (to live), and ч is soft whatever vowel follows it.
| Symbol | Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Nearest English sound |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| /j/ | я | ya | /ja/ | y in yes |
| /ʂ/ | шум | shum | /ʂum/ | sh in rush, tongue further back |
| /ʐ/ | жук | zhuk | /ʐuk/ | s in pleasure, tongue further back |
| /ɕː/ | щи | shchi | /ɕːi/ | sh sh in wish sheep |
| /t͡s/ | царь | tsar' | /t͡sarʲ/ | ts in cats |
| /t͡ɕ/ | час | chas | /t͡ɕas/ | ch in chip |
/j/ hides inside four vowel letters. At the start of a word or after another vowel, я, е, ё and ю are /j/ plus a vowel: я /ja/ (I), ель /jelʲ/ (spruce), юг /juk/ (south). After a consonant they lose the /j/ and soften the consonant instead.
Hard vs soft consonants: a difference that changes words
Softness is not a detail you can skip. Swap a hard consonant for its soft partner and you get a different word:
| Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| брат | brat | /brat/ | brother |
| брать | brat' | /bratʲ/ | to take |
| лук | luk | /ɫuk/ | onion |
| люк | lyuk | /lʲuk/ | hatch |
| нос | nos | /nos/ | nose |
| нёс | nyos | /nʲɵs/ | carried |
| угол | úgol | /uɡəɫ/ | corner |
| уголь | úgol' | /uɡəlʲ/ | coal |
| быть | byt' | /bɨtʲ/ | to be |
| бить | bit' | /bʲitʲ/ | to beat |
The spelling marks softness on the letter after the consonant. The vowel letters а, э, ы, о and у leave it hard; я, е, и, ё and ю make it soft. At the end of a word or before another consonant, the soft sign ь does the job, which is the only difference between брат and брать.
The vowel is a listening cue too. Because vowels shift next to soft consonants, you often hear the softness in the vowel first: the o of нос /nos/ is a plain back vowel, while the ё of нёс /nʲɵs/ is pulled forward to [ɵ].
Stress and vowel reduction: akanye and ikanye
Russian stress can fall on any syllable, and it can move when a word changes form. Wikipedia's Russian phonology article calls it phonemic and unpredictable (section "Stress"). Ordinary Russian text does not mark it; dictionaries and learner textbooks put an acute accent on the stressed vowel. Some words differ by stress alone: му́ка (torment) and мука́ (flour).
Stress matters this much because Russian, like English, weakens its unstressed vowels. Only the stressed syllable keeps its full vowel. Help:IPA/Russian gives these patterns:
- Akanye. Unstressed о and а merge. Right before the stress, and at the start of a word, they become [ɐ], close to the u in bud. Further from the stress they become [ə], the a in about.
- Ikanye. After a soft consonant, unstressed е and я (and а after ч and щ) become [ɪ], the i in bit. Some word endings keep [ə] instead, as in воля /volʲə/ (will).
- After the always-hard ж, ш and ц, unstressed е becomes [ɨ].
- Unstressed у becomes the laxer [ʊ], the u in put.
| Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | What to notice |
|---|---|---|---|
| окно | oknó | /ɐkno/ | о at the start of the word: [ɐ] |
| трава | travá | /trɐva/ | а right before the stress: [ɐ] |
| корова | koróva | /kɐrovə/ | three o's: [ɐ], stressed [o], then [ə] |
| облако | óblako | /obɫəkə/ | stress on the first syllable, [ə] after it |
| стол | stol | /stoɫ/ | о under stress stays [o] |
| столы | stolý | /stɐɫɨ/ | stress moves to the ending, the о reduces |
| река | reká | /rʲɪka/ | е after a soft consonant: [ɪ] |
| пятно | pyatnó | /pʲɪtno/ | я after a soft consonant: [ɪ] |
| часы | chasý | /t͡ɕɪsɨ/ | а after ч: [ɪ] |
| жена | zhená | /ʐɨna/ | е after ж: [ɨ] |
| рука | ruká | /rʊka/ | у before the stress: [ʊ] |
The working rule: find the stressed syllable first. It is the only one where the vowel letter tells you the vowel. The [ə] after the stress in облако is the same neutral vowel that English uses in about; the guide to the English schwa shows how it behaves in English, and much of it carries over.
Final devoicing and voicing assimilation
Consonant letters have one more trap. A voiced consonant at the end of a word is said voiceless, unless the next word starts with a voiced stop or fricative such as б, д or з. Inside a cluster, a final stop or fricative sets the voicing for the consonants before it; /v/ is the exception and triggers nothing (Help:IPA/Russian, citing Halle's The Sound Pattern of Russian, 1959).
| Example | Transliteration | Example in IPA | Written, then said |
|---|---|---|---|
| зуб | zub | /zup/ | б said /p/ |
| год | god | /ɡot/ | д said /t/ |
| хлеб | khleb | /xlʲep/ | б said /p/ |
| водка | vódka | /votkə/ | д said /t/ before к |
| сказка | skázka | /skaskə/ | з said /s/ before к |
| вокзал | vokzál | /vɐɡzaɫ/ | к said /ɡ/ before з |
The five sounds English speakers miss
None of these five has an exact match in English, so you cannot borrow them from a word you already say.
1. /ɨ/, the vowel of ы
Say the ee of meet, then pull your tongue straight back without rounding your lips. Another way in: say the oo of cool and spread your lips into a smile. Practise on мыл /mɨɫ/ (washed) against мил /mʲiɫ/ (dear).
2. /x/, the Russian х
This is the ch of Scottish loch or German Bach. Put your tongue where it goes for /k/, but let the air hiss through the narrow gap instead of stopping it. English h is made in the throat and is too weak; /k/ closes completely. Try хор /xor/ (choir) and хлеб /xlʲep/ (bread).
3. The trilled /r/
Russian р is a trill: the tip of the tongue vibrates against the roof of the mouth just behind the upper teeth. Soft /rʲ/ usually makes a single contact (Russian phonology, section "Consonants"). The English r never touches the roof of the mouth at all, so it is a different sound, not a softer version of this one. Start with рот /rot/ (mouth).
4. A soft consonant at the end of a word
English has y-glides after consonants, as in few and view, but never at the end of a word. Russian puts soft consonants there all the time, and the softness carries meaning: мат /mat/ (checkmate) and мать /matʲ/ (mother) differ only in the last sound. End the word with the middle of your tongue high, as if about to say y, and release the consonant from there.
5. Two sh-sounds: /ʂ/ and /ɕː/
Russian ш and щ are both a kind of sh, and neither is the English one. For /ʂ/ in шум /ʂum/ (noise), move your tongue further back and keep its body low; Wikipedia notes these sounds are also slightly lip-rounded. For /ɕː/ in щи /ɕːi/ (cabbage soup), push the middle of your tongue up toward the palate, as for a soft consonant, and hold the sound longer.
Frequently asked questions
Does Russian have the English th sound?
No. Russian has no /θ/ or /ð/, and no /w/ or /h/ either (Russian phonology, section "Consonants"). The nearest Russian sound to English h is /x/, and Help:IPA/Russian lists Хьюстон (Houston) among its examples of soft /xʲ/.
Is IPA the same as a Russian transliteration?
No. A transliteration maps Cyrillic letters to Latin ones, so корова becomes koróva. IPA maps the sounds, so it shows the reduced vowels and the soft consonants that a transliteration hides: /kɐrovə/.
Does n turn into ng before k in Russian?
No. English says the n of bank as /ŋ/, but Russian /n/ does not change before /k/ or /ɡ/ (Russian phonology, section "Consonants"). Keep the tongue tip against the teeth.
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